The Effectiveness of Mental Toughness Training in Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17309/tmfv.2025.6.18Keywords:
mental toughness, psychological skills training, athletes, interventionAbstract
Objectives. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of interventions targeting mental toughness (MT) in sport.
Materials and Methods. Eligibility criteria encompassed quantitative controlled experimental studies of MT interventions in athletes. Information sources comprised studies indexed in Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and SPORTDiscus from inception to April 13, 2025. Reference lists of included studies were also screened. Risk of bias was considered as follows: Two authors independently assessed the reporting quality and risk of bias of included studies using a modified Downs and Black index. Regarding the synthesis of results, the standardized mean difference (SMD) was calculated to evaluate the effects of interventions using the random effect model.
Results. This review included a total of 10 studies involving 465 participants, with sports primarily including soccer (24.7%), basketball (19.7%), and table tennis (17.5%). Seven studies (67.3%) employed a combination of psychological skills training interventions. The meta-analysis incorporated all 10 studies and their respective experimental groups to elucidate the overall efficacy of MT training programs. The pooled effect size was statistically and practically significant, yielding a large standardized mean difference of g = 0.81 (95% CI 0.57–1.05, p < 0.001), indicating a substantial advantage of MT training interventions over control conditions.
Conclusions. This meta-analysis provides strong empirical evidence supporting the effectiveness of psychological interventions — particularly multicomponent Psychological Skills Training (PST) — in enhancing mental toughness among athletes across different sports. However, due to the lack of long-term follow-up assessments, reliance on quasi-experimental designs, and diversity in measurement approaches, the findings should be interpreted with caution. To advance the field, further research should adopt more rigorous methodologies, including large-scale randomized controlled trials and longitudinal designs, to identify the most effective components and delivery methods for developing mental toughness. These efforts will ultimately inform evidence-based practices for coaches, psychologists, and practitioners aiming to cultivate high-performing athletes.
Downloads
References
Konter, E., Beckmann, J., & Loughead, T. M. (Eds.). (2019). Football psychology: from theory to practice. Routledge, 23-37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315268248
Jones, G., Hanton, S., & Connaughton, D. (2002). What is this thing called mental toughness? An investigation of elite sport performers. Journal of applied sport psychology, 14(3), 205-218. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200290103509 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200290103509
Clough, P., Earle, K., & Sewell, D. (2002). Mental toughness: The concept and its measurement. Solutions in sport psychology, 1(1), 32-46.
Gucciardi, D. F., Gordon, S., & Dimmock, J. A. (2008). Towards an understanding of mental toughness in Australian football. Journal of applied sport psychology, 20(3), 261-281. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200801998556 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200801998556
Sheard, M., Golby, J., & Van Wersch, A. (2009). Progress toward construct validation of the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ). European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 25(3), 186-193. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.25.3.186 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.25.3.186
Clough, P., & Strycharczyk, D. (2012). Developing mental toughness: Improving performance, wellbeing and positive behaviour in others. Kogan Page Publishers.
Mahoney, J. W., Gucciardi, D. F., Ntoumanis, N., & Mallet, C. J. (2014). Mental toughness in sport: Motivational antecedents and associations with performance and psychological health. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 36(3), 281-292. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2013-0260 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2013-0260
Connaughton, D., Wadey, R., Hanton, S., & Jones, G. (2008). The development and maintenance of mental toughness: Perceptions of elite performers. Journal of sports sciences, 26(1), 83-95. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410701310958 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410701310958
Thelwell, R. C., Such, B. A., Weston, N. J., Such, J. D., & Greenlees, I. A. (2010). Developing mental toughness: Perceptions of elite female gymnasts. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 8(2), 170-188. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2010.9671941 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2010.9671941
Butt, J., Weinberg, R., & Culp, B. (2010). Exploring mental toughness in NCAA athletes. Journal of intercollegiate sport, 3(2), 316-332. https://doi.org/10.1123/jis.3.2.316 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1123/jis.3.2.316
Cook, C., Crust, L., Littlewood, M., Nesti, M., & Allen-Collinson, J. (2014). ‘What it takes’: perceptions of mental toughness and its development in an English Premier League Soccer Academy. Qualitative research in sport, exercise and health, 6(3), 329-347. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2013.857708 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2013.857708
Anthony, D. R., Gucciardi, D. F., & Gordon, S. (2016). A meta-study of qualitative research on mental toughness development. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 9(1), 160-190. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2016.1146787 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2016.1146787
Anthony, D. R., Gordon, S., Gucciardi, D. F., & Dawson, B. (2018). Adapting a behavioral coaching framework for mental toughness development. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 9(1), 32-50. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2017.1323058 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2017.1323058
Weinberg, R., Freysinger, V., Mellano, K., & Brookhouse, E. (2016). Building mental toughness: Perceptions of sport psychologists. The Sport Psychologist, 30(3), 231-241. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2015-0090 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2015-0090
Weinberg, R., Freysinger, V., & Mellano, K. (2018). How can coaches build mental toughness? Views from sport psychologists. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 9(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2016.1263981 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2016.1263981
Stamatis, A., Grandjean, P., Morgan, G., Padgett, R. N., Cowden, R., & Koutakis, P. (2020). Developing and training mental toughness in sport: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies and pre-test and post-test experiments. BMJ open sport & exercise medicine, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2020-000747 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2020-000747
Crust, L., & Clough, P. J. (2011). Developing mental toughness: From research to practice. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 2(1), 21-32. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2011.563436 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2011.563436
Downs, S. H., & Black, N. (1998). The feasibility of creating a checklist for the assessment of the methodological quality both of randomised and non-randomised studies of health care interventions. Journal of epidemiology & community health, 52(6), 377-384. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.52.6.377 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.52.6.377
Toth, A. J., McNeill, E., Hayes, K., Moran, A. P., & Campbell, M. (2020). Does mental practice still enhance performance? A 24 Year follow-up and meta-analytic replication and extension. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 48, 101672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101672 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101672
Thurlow, F., Huynh, M., Townshend, A., McLaren, S. J., James, L. P., Taylor, J. M., & Weakley, J. (2024). The effects of repeated-sprint training on physical fitness and physiological adaptation in athletes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 54(4), 953-974. https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/RVNDW. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-023-01959-1
Kittel, A., Lindsay, R., Larkin, P., Spittle, M., & Cunningham, I. (2025). The effectiveness of decision-making training in team-sport officials: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 102841. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2025.102841 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2025.102841
Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. (2024). Version 6.5, https://training.cochrane.org/handbook/current.
Higgins, J. P., & Thompson, S. G. (2002). Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta‐analysis. Statistics in medicine, 21(11), 1539-1558. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.1186 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.1186
Wang, Y., Lei, S. M., & Fan, J. (2023). Effects of mindfulness-based interventions on promoting athletic performance and related factors among athletes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trial. International journal of environmental research and public health, 20(3), 2038. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032038 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032038
Egger, M., Smith, G. D., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ, 315(7109), 629-634. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629
Abdelbaky, F. M. (2012). Impacts of mental toughness program on 20 km race walking. Science, movement and health, 12(1), 67-71.
Ajilchi, B., Amini, H. R., Ardakani, Z. P., Zadeh, M. M., & Kisely, S. (2019). Applying mindfulness training to enhance the mental toughness and emotional intelligence of amateur basketball players. Australasian Psychiatry, 27(3), 291-296. https://doi.org/10.1177/1039856219828119 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1039856219828119
Ajilchi, B., Mohebi, M., Zarei, S., & Kisely, S. (2022). Effect of a mindfulness programme training on mental toughness and psychological well-being of female athletes. Australasian Psychiatry, 30(3), 352-356. https://doi.org/10.1177/10398562211057075 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/10398562211057075
Bell, J. J., Hardy, L., & Beattie, S. (2013). Enhancing mental toughness and performance under pressure in elite young cricketers: A 2-year longitudinal intervention. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 2(4), 281. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033129
Bhambri, E., Dhillon, P. K., & Sahni, S. P. (2005). Effect of psychological interventions in enhancing mental toughness dimensions of sports persons. Journal of the Indian academy of applied psychology, 31(1-2), 65-70.
Gucciardi, D. F., Gordon, S., & Dimmock, J. A. (2009). Evaluation of a mental toughness training program for youth-aged Australian footballers: I. A quantitative analysis. Journal of applied sport psychology, 21(3), 307-323. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200903026066 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200903026066
Pocius, E., & Malinauskas, R. (2024). Development of mental toughness among basketball sports school students. Behavioral Sciences, 14(4), 314. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14040314 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14040314
Putra, M. F. P., Sutoro, S., Zainuri, A., Numberi, G. K. I., Nurhidayah, D., & Kadir, A. (2025). Mental toughness training circle (MTTC): what is its impact on the mental toughness, anxiety, and academic performance of college-level athletes and non-athletes? Retos, 64, 866-876. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v64.109694 DOI: https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v64.109694
Sharma, A., & Prasad, B. K. (2023). Effect of VMBR Training on Psychological Dimensions of Anxiety and Mental Toughness of Table Tennis Players. Physical Education Theory and Methodology, 23(1), 28-34. https://doi.org/10.17309/tmfv.2023.1.04 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17309/tmfv.2023.1.04
Singh, S. P., & Bhowmik, S. K. (2020). Effect of Visuo-Motor Behavior Rehearsal on enhancing Mental Toughness of Soccer Players. Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities, 12(5), 1-11. : https://dx.doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v12n5.rioc1s19n3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v12n5.rioc1s19n3
Bull, S. J., Shambrook, C. J., James, W., & Brooks, J. E. (2005). Towards an understanding of mental toughness in elite English cricketers. Journal of applied sport psychology, 17(3), 209-227. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200591010085 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200591010085
Park, I., & Jeon, J. (2023, January). Psychological skills training for athletes in sports: web of science bibliometric analysis. In Healthcare, 11(2), p. 259. MDPI. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11020259 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11020259
Williams, J. M., & Krane, V. (2001). Psychological characteristics of peak performance. Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance, 4, 137-147.
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2023). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology. Human kinetics. 514-61
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Jinyu Lan, Rabiatul-Adawiah Ahmad Rashid, Shancong Chen
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
