Physical Education Theory and Methodology

Effects of Hybrid Training Combining Shadow, Dynamic Ball, Sensory, and Game Drills on Forehand Drive Performance in Young Table Tennis Players: A 2×2 Factorial Design

2026-05-30T19:32:34+03:00

Background. Optimal training protocols for the forehand drive in young table tennis players (ages 6–9) are still under development. Although shadow drills, dynamic ball practice, sensory tools, and game-based activities each provide unique benefits, no research has integrated these methods into a hybrid model. Additionally, the moderating role of baseline EHC remains unclear, limiting the design of inclusive training programs.

Objectives. This study investigated the effect of a hybrid training model on forehand drive performance and assessed whether its effectiveness varied according to the athlete’s baseline EHC level.

Materials and Methods. A 2×2 factorial quasi-experimental design was employed. Twenty-eight athletes from PTMSI Makassar were divided into experimental (n = 14) and control (n = 14) groups and further stratified by high or low EHC levels (measured using the Beery VMI). Forehand drive accuracy (maximum score = 50) was assessed before and after 14 training sessions (50 minutes each, three times per week). Data were analyzed using two-way ANCOVA while controlling for pretest scores.

Results. After adjustment, the hybrid group achieved significantly higher scores than the control group (M = 44.68 vs. 42.11; p < 0.001, partial η² = 0.483). Athletes with high EHC outperformed those with low EHC (M = 44.54 vs. 42.25; p < 0.001, partial η² = 0.423). The interaction between training and EHC was not significant (p = 0.991).

Conclusion. The hybrid training model significantly improved forehand drive performance compared to conventional training methods. Coaches are encouraged to incorporate all four training methods into daily practice programs. These findings highlight the importance of integrating diverse training approaches at an early age and suggest potential applications in pediatric physiotherapy and motor performance rehabilitation.

Sex Differences in Gross Motor Quotient among Students: Evidence from TGMD-2 Assessment

2026-05-30T19:32:48+03:00

Objectives. This study aims to assess and compare Fundamental Motor Skills (FMS) using gender-based Gross Motor Quotient (GMQ) scores in elementary school students.

Materials and methods. The study involved 24 fourth-grade elementary school students (12 boys, 12 girls; M±SD = 10.21±0.41) to assess gross motor skills using the TGMD-2. The locomotor and object-control subtests were assessed in two trials using binary criteria and then converted into standard scores and GMQ values. The analysis included descriptive statistics, normality tests, independent t-tests or Mann-Whitney U tests, and effect size calculations to compare motor skills between genders.

Results. Gross Motor Quotient (GMQ) analysis showed that most students had low gross motor skill levels. The boys' group was in the very poor category (GMQ 58-67) for both locomotor and object-control skills, indicating low uniformity across subtests. The girls' group showed greater variation (GMQ 61-82), but the majority were still classified in the very poor or poor categories. Independent-samples t-tests on the locomotor and object-control subtests showed no significant differences between genders, except for the slide subtest, in which girls performed better (p = 0.038). A Mann-Whitney U test on the GMQ confirmed a significant difference between the groups, with girls outperforming boys (p = 0.005; effect size = 0.57). These findings confirm the low level of gross motor skills among students and emphasize the need for structured motor learning interventions to improve locomotor and object-control competencies.

Conclusions. Future research should explore game-based adaptive learning models, optimal exercise dosage, and the integration of sensorimotor and motivational approaches to improve elementary school students’ GMQ.

Digitalization of “Timed Up and Go” Test to Increase the Control Efficiency in Inclusive Physical Education

2026-05-30T19:32:56+03:00

Objectives. The purpose of this study was to establish the reliability and validity of the “Timed Up and Go” (TUG) test for students with disabilities who have undergone lower limb amputation using an intelligent software-controlled hardware complex in inclusive physical education.

Materials and Methods. The study was conducted at the theoretical and empirical levels. The following methods were used: analysis, synthesis, systematization, generalization, measurement, and mathematical statistics. Measurements were performed using the TUG test. The study sample included first-year male students with a left lower limb amputation (n = 23), provided there were no acute conditions, open wounds, or complications.

Results. The results of the study are presented in the developed intelligent software-controlled hardware system for implementing the TUG test. The structural composition of the system includes Bluetooth-enabled wireless sensors placed on the student and along the entire TUG trajectory. The signals received by the Xsens DOT sensors are transmitted to the latest Arduino Uno R3 microcontroller. Information display and control are provided through the use of a Liquid Crystal Display. A distinctive feature of the complex is the use of IoT technologies for analytics and forecasting in inclusive physical education. Automated acquisition of TUG results enables the recording of numerous gait parameters in students with disabilities and lower limb amputation, such as the amplitude of central oscillations, reaction time, and step length, which cannot be recorded when TUG results are measured using a stopwatch.

Digital data processing transforms the reliability and validity of the TUG test from "average" when measured with a stopwatch to "high", ensuring accurate recording of numerous parameters down to the microsecond level.

Conclusions. The novelty of the developed intelligent programmable tool for implementing the "Get Up and Go" test ensures effective control in inclusive physical education and eliminates the influence of the human factor on test results.

Functional Joint Mobility in Young Athletes Practicing Bocce Raffa: Implications for the Performance Model

2026-05-30T19:32:44+03:00

Objectives. Bocce is a precision sport that requires coordination and technical control. In the Raffa specialty, upper limb coordination and postural control are particularly important. Despite its widespread practice, research on the functional characteristics of youth players remains limited. This exploratory analytical pilot study aimed to examine joint mobility as a functional configuration within the movement system underlying the Raffa technical gesture.

Materials and Methods. Twenty-five athletes aged 14–18 years were assessed during regional training events organized by the Campania Bocce Committee. Joint mobility was evaluated using three field tests: the Shoulder Mobility Test, a scapulo-humeral mobility test with stick rotation, and a seated forward trunk flexion test. Descriptive statistics, independent samples t-tests, and Pearson correlations were calculated. Bartlett’s test of sphericity and an exploratory Cronbach’s alpha were used to assess the integrative structure of mobility parameters.

Results. Significant differences emerged in scapulo-humeral mobility and spinal flexibility, whereas no differences were found in shoulder mobility. Correlation analyses revealed weak to moderate relationships among the variables. Bartlett’s test (χ²(3)=9.63, p=0.022) and a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.65 supported the presence of an integrated mobility structure, indicating interdependence among segments.

Conclusions. Joint mobility acts as a non-linear, context-dependent resource, functioning as both a facilitator and a constraint depending on its integration within the movement system. Functional effectiveness in the Raffa gesture depends on the balance among shoulder, scapulo-humeral, and spinal components rather than on isolated maximal values. The study proposes a preliminary explanatory framework in which joint mobility mediates the relationship between movement amplitude and control.

High-Intensity Interval Training vs. Plyometric EMOM: A Comparison of Effects on Body Composition and Physical Fitness in 18-19-Year-Old Karate Athletes

2026-05-30T19:33:01+03:00

Background. A scientific contradiction exists in kumite preparation: HIIT (metabolic-dominant via AMPK/PGC-1α) and plyometric training (neuromuscular-dominant via SSC) are theoretically predicted to produce distinct adaptation patterns, yet empirical literature reports only isolated effects without explanatory models of adaptation transfer to karate-specific fitness demands.

Objectives. This study aimed to compare the effects of conventional High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) and plyometric training using the Every Minute on the Minute (EMOM) format on physical fitness and body composition in male karate athletes aged 18-19 years.

Materials and Methods. Forty-four male karate athletes (aged 18-19 years) from the Polda DIY Karate Club were assigned to a quasi-experimental two-group pretest-posttest design, completing HIIT (n = 22) and plyometric-EMOM (n = 22) training over 8 weeks. Physical fitness was assessed using the Indonesian Physical Fitness Test (TKJI); body composition was measured using a Tanita BC-545N.

Results. Both groups improved substantially (p < 0.001). Significant Time×Group interactions were observed for TKJI, body fat, and body weight (all p < 0.001), with a moderate interaction for FFM (p = 0.028). The HIIT group demonstrated greater TKJI gains (Δ = +3.09 vs. +0.95), while the plyometric-EMOM group produced greater fat loss (Δ = −5.36% vs. −4.29%). Extremely large effect sizes (Cohen’s d up to 6.80) reflect low variance within a homogeneous single-club sample rather than universal biological effects.

Conclusions. HIIT is superior for physical fitness via metabolic-cardiovascular pathways, whereas plyometric-EMOM excels in fat reduction via SSC-driven eccentric energetics, confirming the Dual-Pathway Specificity Model. These findings are context-specific to elite junior male karate athletes and require further validation for broader generalization.

Small-Sided Games Versus High-Intensity Interval Training: Effects on Aerobic Fitness, Agility, and Psychological Responses in Collegiate Female Field Hockey Players

2026-05-30T19:32:58+03:00

Objectives. The study aimed to examine the impact of small-sided games (SSG) and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) onselected physical and psychological variables among collegiate female field hockey players.

Materials and Methods. Thirty collegiate female field hockey players (age: 20.20 ± 1.58 years) were randomly selected and divided into an SSG group (n = 15) and an HIIT group (n = 15). Both groups participated in a six-week training program (two sessions a week) alongside regular team practice. The SSG group played 4 vs 4 games on a 30 x 40 m field, while the HIIT group performed15-s running bouts at 110% maximal aerobic speed (MAS) with 15-s passive recovery intervals. Pre- and post-intervention measurements were conducted for maximal aerobic speed, agility (Modified T-test), neuromuscular power (five-jump test), enjoyment (PACES), and mood state (total mood disturbance; TMD). Independent t-tests and ANCOVA (p < 0.05) were used fordata analysis.

Results. No significant differences were observed at baseline (p > 0.05). Both groups enhanced MAS, but the SSG group demonstrated greater improvements in agility and psychological variables. ANCOVA revealed significant group effects for MAS (p = 0.014), agility (p = 0.002), PACES (p = 0.001), and TMD (p = 0.001), favoring SSG. Neuromuscular power did not show any significant differences between the groups.

Conclusions. SSG yielded superior results in agility and psychological responses while being equally effective in improving aerobic fitness. These findings confirm the application of SSG as an ecologically valid and effective conditioning strategy for collegiate field hockey players.

The Effect of Plyometric Training Versus Combined Plyometric and Core Training on Autonomic Regulation and Muscle Oxygenation During Incremental Resistance Exercise in Collegiate Athletes

2026-05-30T19:32:41+03:00

Objectives. This study aimed to compare the effects of plyometric training (PT) and combined plyometric plus core training (PT+CT) on autonomic nervous system regulation and local muscle oxygenation during resistance exercise in collegiate athletes. Specifically, changes in heart rate variability (HRV), muscle oxygen saturation (SmO₂), and performance parameters were examined following a 10-week intervention.

Materials and Methods. A three-arm, parallel-group, assessor-blinded randomized controlled trial was conducted with 45 collegiate athletes (aged 19–24 years) from volleyball, soccer, and basketball backgrounds. Participants were randomly assigned to PT (n = 15), PT+CT (n = 15), or a control group (CON; n = 15). The PT group performed progressive plyometric exercises, while the PT+CT group completed identical plyometric training supplemented with structured core exercises, three sessions per week for 10 weeks. The CON group continued sport-specific training only. Primary outcomes included resting and post-exercise HRV indices (RMSSD, SDNN, HF power, LF/HF ratio) and SmO₂ measured via near-infrared spectroscopy during incremental back squat at 60%, 70%, and 80% of 1-RM. Secondary outcomes included maximal strength, jump performance, blood lactate, and perceived exertion.

Results. Forty-two participants completed the study. Both PT and PT+CT groups showed significantly greater improvements in 1-RM back squat compared with CON (P < .001). The PT+CT group demonstrated superior increases in resting RMSSD compared with PT (P = .008) and CON (P < .001). During high-intensity exercise (80% 1-RM), SmO₂ was significantly higher in PT+CT than in both PT and CON (P ≤ .01). Post-exercise HF power was better preserved in PT+CT than CON (P = .003). Additionally, countermovement jump performance improved more in PT+CT than PT (P = .04) and CON (P < .001), with no significant differences observed in blood lactate or RPE.

Conclusions. The findings confirm that combined plyometric and core training elicits superior improvements in autonomic regulation and muscle oxygenation compared to plyometric training alone, supporting its integration into resistance-based conditioning programs for enhanced physiological and performance adaptations.

The Effect of Virtual Reality-Based Multimodal Training Programs on the Balance and Agility of Young Football Athletes

2026-05-30T19:32:35+03:00

Background. Young soccer athletes often demonstrate insufficient development of balance and agility, which may limit their overall performance. The integration of structured training programs with virtual reality (VR) technology offers a promising approach to enhancing these physical components.

Objectives. The study aimed to examine the effect of a VR-based multimodal training program integrating the FIFA 11+ protocol on balance and agility in young soccer players.

Materials and Methods. A randomized controlled trial with a pretest–posttest design was conducted involving 20 male soccer players aged 11–13 years. Participants were randomly assigned to an experimental group (VR-based training, n = 10) and a control group (conventional training, n = 10). The intervention lasted 8 weeks (3 sessions per week). Balance was assessed using the Stork Static Balance Test, and agility using the T-Test. Data were analyzed using mixed ANOVA with repeated measures, including evaluation of the Time × Group interaction, and effect sizes (Cohen’s d).

Results. A significant Time × Group interaction was observed for balance (F = 124.35, p < 0.001) and agility (F = 26.21, p < 0.001). The experimental group demonstrated greater improvements in balance (Δ = 4.87 s; d = 1.07) and agility (Δ = 0.83 s; d = 2.70) compared to the control group (Δ = 1.37 s; d = 0.54 and Δ = 0.31 s; d = 1.05, respectively).

Conclusions. The findings indicate that VR-based multimodal training significantly improves balance and agility in young soccer players and can be considered an effective and innovative approach in youth soccer training programs.

Trust as a Mechanism of Role-Dependent Regulation in Acrobatic Pairs

2026-05-30T19:32:55+03:00

Objectives. This study aimed to examine how cognitive and affective trust are organized within acrobatic pairs depending on compatibility type and partner role. It was hypothesized that trust organization varies across compatibility configurations and partner roles, and that the balance between cognitive and affective trust reflects distinct mechanisms of interaction regulation associated with responsibility distribution and regulatory tension within the dyadic system.

Materials and Methods. The study involved 25 acrobatic pairs (N = 50 athletes) aged 11–16 years competing in acrobatic gymnastics at the stage of preliminary basic training. Compatibility types were determined according to a typology of acrobatic pair compatibility previously developed by the authors. The typology integrates indicators of technical execution reliability, postural and phase coordination, and emotional–expressive coherence. Interpersonal trust was assessed using an adapted version of Daniel J. McAllister’s Affect- and Cognition-Based Trust Scale. Nonparametric statistical procedures were applied, including Kruskal–Wallis tests, Mann–Whitney U tests, and Dwass–Steel–Critchlow–Fligner post-hoc comparisons.

Results. The findings revealed generally high levels of interpersonal trust between partners. No statistically significant differences between partner roles were identified. However, the structure of trust organization differed across compatibility types. Functionally oriented pairs demonstrated relatively higher cognitive trust, whereas expressively oriented pairs exhibited relatively higher affective trust. Complex synergy pairs showed consistently high levels of both trust components and demonstrated the highest values on the trust balance index, indicating a more integrated mechanism of interaction regulation.

Conclusions. Trust in acrobatic pairs functions not only as an individual psychological characteristic but also as a mechanism regulating interaction within a functionally asymmetric partnership. Variations in the balance between cognitive and affective trust reflect different coordination mechanisms associated with the distribution of responsibility, emotional synchronization, and interaction stability in acrobatic pairs.

Phase-Dependent Interaction Between Oxidative Stress and Muscle Damage During Acute Recovery Following Eccentric Exercise

2026-05-30T19:32:31+03:00

Background. Eccentric exercise induces oxidative stress, muscle damage, and decreased neuromuscular performance. However, the temporal relationship between these responses is not fully understood, particularly in recreationally active individuals.

Objectives. This study aimed to investigate the time-course changes and phase-dependent relationships between oxidative stress, muscle damage, and neuromuscular performance following an athletics-based eccentric exercise protocol.

Materials and Methods. A single-group repeated-measures design was employed involving 46 recreationally active male students (age: 19.15 ± 0.76 years). Participants performed an eccentric exercise protocol consisting of jump-landing, bounding, sprint deceleration, and slow-tempo squats. Malondialdehyde (MDA), Creatine Kinase (CK), and Countermovement Jump (CMJ) performance were measured at baseline and at 24, 48, and 72 hours post-exercise. Data were analyzed using repeated-measures ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc tests and Pearson correlation analysis.

Results. Significant time effects were observed for all variables (p < 0.001). MDA and CK levelsincreased at 24 h, subsequently declining at 48 h and 72 h, yet remaining elevated compared to baseline.CMJ performance decreased at 24 h and showed partial recovery, but did not return to baseline at 72 h. No significant correlation was found between MDA and CK at 24 h; however, moderate positive correlations were observed at 48 h (r = 0.557, p < 0.001) and 72 h (r = 0.496, p < 0.001). No significant relationships were found between biochemical markers and CMJ.

Conclusions. Eccentric exercise induces oxidative stress and muscle damage alongside decreased neuromuscular performance. Biochemical markers peak at 24 h and decline thereafter, while neuromuscular recovery remains incomplete at 72 h. The relationship between oxidative stress and muscle damage is time-dependent, emerging during the recovery phase rather than the acute phase. These findings indicate distinct temporal patterns, suggesting that neuromuscular performance is not fully explained by biochemical markers.

Promoting School Inclusion Through Structured Physical Activity: Physiological, Cognitive, and Social Outcomes in Migrant Students

2026-05-30T19:32:57+03:00

Background. In multicultural educational contexts, schools are increasingly required to promote inclusive practices that support the social integration and well-being of students with a migrant background. Physical activity has been identified as a potentially effective tool for fostering relational and intercultural skills; however, empirical evidence based on structured interventions remains limited.

Objectives. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a structured, inclusion-oriented physical activity programme in improving social inclusion, self-esteem, and classroom climate among lower secondary school students, with particular attention to those with a migrant background.

Materials and Methods. A mixed-method quasi-experimental design with pre-test and post-test measures was adopted. The sample consisted of 72 students aged 11–13 years, divided into an experimental group (n = 36) and a control group (n = 36). The 12-week intervention included cooperative learning, peer tutoring, non-verbal communication activities, and culturally relevant games. Quantitative data were collected using validated instruments (SISCA, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Classroom Climate Scale) and analysed using t-tests and repeated measures ANOVA. Qualitative data were gathered through focus groups, teacher logbooks, and systematic observation.

Results. The experimental group showed statistically significant improvements compared to the control group. Social inclusion scores increased from M = 2.91 (SD = 0.43) to M = 3.47 (SD = 0.38) (F(1,70) = 14.62; p = 0.001). Self-esteem improved from M = 21.8 (SD = 3.6) to M = 25.1 (SD = 3.2) (t = 4.07; p = 0.002). Classroom climate scores increased from M = 3.02 (SD = 0.40) to M = 3.55 (SD = 0.36) (F(1,70) = 11.89; p = 0.003). No statistically significant changes were observed in the control group (p > 0.05). Qualitative findings corroborated these results, indicating improvements in peer relationships, non-verbal communication, and sense of belonging.

Conclusions. Under structured and theory-driven conditions, physical activity programmes based on inclusive pedagogical strategies can significantly enhance social inclusion, self-esteem, and classroom climate in multicultural lower secondary school settings. These findings support the implementation of targeted physical activity interventions as an effective approach to promoting social integration and psychological well-being among students, particularly those with a migrant background.

Emotional Synchronisation and Motor Coordination in Artistic Swimming: The Role of Team Cohesion in Synchronised Performance

2026-05-30T19:32:36+03:00

Background. Motor synchronisation is a key determinant of performance in artistic swimming; however, it is primarily analysed from a technical perspective, with limited consideration of emotional and relational processes within the team. A more comprehensive understanding of synchronised performance requires analysis of the interaction between emotional attunement, team cohesion, and collective motor coordination.

Objectives. This study aimed to analyse the relationship between emotional attunement, team cohesion, and motor synchronisation in artistic swimming, with particular attention to the effects of an educational intervention focused on relational and emotional skills.

Materials and Methods. A mixed-methods quasi-experimental design was employed. The sample consisted of 150 competitive artistic swimmers aged 17–28 years, divided into an experimental group and a control group. Participants were additionally stratified into three age subgroups (17–19, 20–23, and 24–28 years). The experimental group underwentan educational programme designed to enhance team cohesion and emotional awareness. Quantitative data were collected using the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) and structured video analysis of routines, whereas qualitative data were obtained through focus groups. Independent samples t-tests and subgroup analyses were conducted. A two-way ANOVA (Group × Age group) was performed to examine the interaction between intervention and age.

Results. The experimental group demonstrated significantly higher levels of group cohesion across all GEQ dimensions compared to the control group (e.g., Group Integration–Task: M = 7.8 vs. 6.5; t = 4.21; p < .01; d = 0.78). Similar differences were identified for Group Integration–Social (M = 7.6 vs. 6.3; p < .01) and Individual Attraction dimensions (p < .05). The experimental group also achieved significantly higher motor synchronisation scores across all indicators, including temporal precision (87% vs. 74%), body position uniformity (85% vs. 72%), synchronisation with music (88% vs. 76%), and execution timing consistency (86% vs. 73%) (p < .05). These differences remained stable across all age subgroups. ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of group (p < .01), whereas the main effect of age and the interaction effect (Group × Age group) were non-significant (p > .05). Qualitative findings additionally highlighted the importance of trust, non-verbal communication, and shared emotional states in facilitating coordination.

Conclusions. Motor synchronisation in artistic swimming should be considered not only a technical skill but also a multidimensional process influenced by emotional attunement and team cohesion. Educational interventions targeting relational and emotional dynamics may substantially improve collective coordination and performance quality in team sports, independently of age-related differences.

Running as a Psychoeducational Intervention for Reducing Anxiety in Adolescents

2026-05-30T19:32:40+03:00

Background. Adolescence is a developmental stage characterised by increased vulnerability to anxiety and emotional dysregulation. Physical activity, particularly aerobic exercise such as running, has been identified as a potentially effective and accessible strategy for promoting mental health; however, evidence from structured and inclusive school-based interventions remains limited, especially for adolescents with Special Educational Needs (SEN) and Specific Learning Disorders (SLD).

Objectives. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a structured running programme in reducing state and trait anxiety among adolescents, and to examine its impact on self-efficacy and emotional well-being, including in students with SEN/SLD.

Materials and Methods. A mixed-methods experimental design with pre-test (T0) and post-test (T1) measures was adopted. The sample consisted of 60 adolescents (aged 13–17 years), divided into an experimental group (n = 30) and a control group (n = 30). The experimental group participated in an 8-week running programme (three sessions per week, 30–40 minutes per session, moderate intensity), while the control group followed regular school activities. Quantitative data were collected using the STAI-C for state and trait anxiety, a self-efficacy scale, and measures of emotional well-being, and were analysed using paired t-tests and repeated-measures ANOVA. Qualitative data were collected through journals, interviews, and guided reflections, and analysed using thematic analysis.

Results. The experimental group showed significant reductions in state anxiety (T0: M = 42.6, SD = 6.1; T1: M = 35.2, SD = 5.4; t(29) = 6.84, p < .001, d = 1.25) and trait anxiety (T0: M = 44.1, SD = 5.8; T1: M = 38.7, SD = 5.2; t(29) = 5.12, p < .001, d = 0.94), while no marked changes were observed in the control group (p > .05). Repeated-measures ANOVA revealed significant group × time interactions for state anxiety (F(1,58) = 21.47, p < .001, η²p = .27) and trait anxiety (F(1,58) = 16.83, p < .001, η²p = .22). Self-efficacy increased notably in the experimental group (T0: M = 27.4, SD = 4.3; T1: M = 32.1, SD = 4.0; t(29) = −5.76, p < .001, d = 1.05), with no significant change in the control group. Emotional well-being also improved substantially (F(1,58) = 14.62, p < .001, η²p = .20). Comparable effects were observed in adolescents with and without SEN/SLD. Qualitative findings supported these results, highlighting improvements in emotional regulation, body awareness, self-efficacy, and social connectedness.

Conclusions. Under structured conditions involving moderate intensity, regular frequency, and psychoeducational support (e.g., mindful running and goal setting), running programmes can significantly reduce anxiety and enhance psychological well-being in adolescents. The intervention appears particularly effective for individuals with higher baseline anxiety and is adaptable to inclusive educational contexts, including students with SEN/SLD. These findings support the use of structured running as a scalable and evidence-based strategy for promoting adolescent mental health in school settings.

The Association Between Physical Activity and Loneliness Among International Students in Java

2026-05-30T19:33:02+03:00

Background. Perceived loneliness and social isolation are significant challenges for international students adapting to different cultural and academic environments. Physical activity has been suggested as a key factor that may be associated with mental health, social interactions, and emotional well-being.

Objectives. The study aimed to examine the association between physical activity and loneliness among international students residing in Java, Indonesia.

Materials and Methods. A cross-sectional survey was conducted with 164 international students from universities in Java, selected using random sampling. Physical activity levels were assessed using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), and loneliness was measured via the Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale. Descriptive statistics and multiple linear regression analyses were performedusing SPSS v.2025.

Results. The majority of participants were highly educated, and 56.1% reported high physical activity. Loneliness was prevalent, with 68.9% of students experiencing moderate to high levels. Multiple regression analysis indicated a significant negative association between physical activity and loneliness (β = – 0.42, p = 0.001), explaining 23% of the variance.

Conclusions. These findings suggest that higher levels of physical activity are associated with lower loneliness among international students, highlighting the potential role of physical activity in supporting social inclusion and well-being. Universities may consider promoting structured physical activity opportunities to facilitate student engagement and adjustment.

Effects of an 8-Week Physical Education Training Program on Physical Fitness in U17–U18 Students

2026-05-30T19:33:00+03:00

Objective. The effectiveness of physical education programs often varies because the specific contribution of exercise sequencing and load progression to fitness outcomes remains insufficiently understood. This study examined how deliberate control of exercise order and progressive load distribution in an 8-week program affects speed, agility, explosive power, and endurance in U17–U18 students.

Materials and Methods. Fifty male students aged 17–18 years were randomly assigned to an experimental group (n = 25) and a control group (n = 25). The experimental group completed the structured program three times per week for eight weeks. Physical fitness was assessed using the 30-m sprint, Illinois agility test, standing long jump, and Cooper 12-minute run test.

Results. The experimental group showed statistically significant improvements in all four parameters (p < 0.05), with large effect sizes (Cohen’s d = 0.83–1.10), whereas the control group showed no significant changes.

Conclusions. The improvements resulted from the sequencing in which speed and agility drills preceded explosive strength exercises, while endurance activities concluded each session, together with progressive load distribution across three microcycles. When this specific order and load progression are followed, substantial gains across multiple fitness components can occur simultaneously. These findings demonstrate that deliberate changes in exercise sequencing and load parameters can influence the magnitude and balance of fitness development, indicating that outcomes are determined by the structured interaction of training components rather than by isolated exercises.

Improving Long-Pass Performance in Youth Football Players Through the BLAST Training Model

2026-05-30T19:32:42+03:00

Background. The long-pass kicking technique is a fundamental skill in football that can significantly influence match dynamics and contribute to team success. However, this technique remains a major challenge for youth football athletes, as it is often insufficiently emphasized in training programs. Therefore, an effective and structured training model is needed to improve long-pass performance.

Objectives. This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of the BLAST training model in improving long-pass kicking technique among youth football athletes.

Materials and Methods. This study employed a quasi-experimental design with a pretest–posttest control group approach. A total of 50 participants were divided into an experimental group (n = 25), which received the BLAST training model, and a control group (n = 25), which underwent conventional training provided by their coaches. The Rumi long-pass test was administered during both the pre-test and post-test to assess performance. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, the Shapiro–Wilk normality test, Levene’s test of homogeneity, ANCOVA, independent samples t-tests, and N-gain score analysis.

Results. The findings revealed that both groups showed improvements in long-pass kicking performance after the intervention. However, the experimental group demonstrated significantly greater improvement than the control group (p < 0.05). The experimental group achieved an average N-gain score of 62.56% (moderately effective), whereas the control group reached only 22.99% (low effectiveness).

Conclusions. The results indicate that the BLAST training model is more effective than conventional training methods in improving long-pass kicking technique among youth football athletes.

Baskin as an Inclusive Educational Laboratory in University Sport Sciences Education

2026-05-30T19:32:47+03:00

Background. Social inclusion is a central priority in educational and sport policies, aiming to create participatory environments that value diversity. Baskin, an innovative inclusive sport, enables individuals with and without disabilities to participate together through differentiated roles and adapted rules, fostering interaction and cooperation.

Objectives. This study aimed to evaluate the educational and social impact of a Baskin laboratory implemented within a university Sport Sciences course, with particular attention to students’ perceived inclusion, relational dynamics, and professional development.

Materials and Methods. A mixed-methods design was adopted. Quantitative data were collected using the Perceived Inclusion Questionnaire (PIQ), administered before (T0) and after (T1) the intervention. Qualitative data were gathered through systematic observations, reflective journals, and semi-structured interviews. The sample included 175 university students and 13 individuals with motor disabilities. Quantitative data were analyzed using paired-samples t-tests and Cohen’s d, while qualitative data were examined through thematic analysis.

Results. The results showed a statistically significant increase in perceived inclusion, social acceptance, and relational support (p < .001), with a large effect size (d = 0.82). Qualitative findings highlighted changes in students’ perceptions of disability, increased empathy, the development of professional competencies, and enhanced group cohesion. The laboratory promoted cooperative behaviors and reduced relational barriers.

Conclusions. The Baskin laboratory proved to be an effective pedagogical tool for inclusive education in Sport Sciences. It supports the development of relational, reflective, and professional skills while fostering meaningful inclusion through structured experiential learning.

From Knowledge Mapping to Evidence Synthesis: A Critical Path Model for Constructing Coherent Scientific Texts

2026-05-30T19:32:54+03:00

Background. Contemporary academic writing practice is increasingly determined by standardized requirements for publication structure and typologies of review studies. At the same time, formal compliance with these standards does not guarantee the methodological coherence of a scientific text, as the logic of knowledge formation often remains unarticulated.

Purpose. To propose a critical path model of knowledge synthesis, within which the preparation of a scientific text is considered as a sequential cognitive process governed by an invariant logic of epistemological operations.

Materials and Methods. The study was conducted in the format of a conceptual narrative review involving methodological works on evidence synthesis, typologies of review studies, and academic writing. The analysis was aimed at reconstructing functional cognitive operations, establishing causal relationships between them, and formalizing their sequence in the form of a critical path.

Results. Five invariant cognitive nodes were identified: orientation, conceptualization, verification, evidence synthesis, and interpretation. It was shown that these nodes form a critical path that determines the methodological coherence of a scientific text regardless of the publication genre. It was established that different types of reviews correspond to individual segments of this path but do not determine its logic. Typical violations of the critical path were identified, including meta-analysis without conceptualization, narrative generalizations without verification, and systematic reviews without orientation in the scientific field, which lead to predictable methodological deformations.

Discussion. The obtained results indicate that methodological problems of contemporary scientific texts have a structural character and are associated with the substitution of the logic of cognition by genre-based and formal requirements. The proposed model makes it possible to interpret these violations as consequences of disruptions in causal relationships between cognitive operations.

Conclusions. The methodological correctness of a scientific text is determined not by its formal type, but by the consistency of the preparation trajectory with the critical path of knowledge synthesis. The proposed model provides a basis for improving the quality of academic writing, peer review, and editorial evaluation.

From Motivation to Sustained Engagement: A Dual-Process Framework of Self-Regulation in Physical Literacy. A Systematic Review

2026-05-30T19:32:46+03:00

Background. Physical literacy (PL) has emerged as a central outcome of contemporary physical education, reflecting a shift toward holistic approaches that integrate physical, cognitive, and affective domains. However, existing research often examines motivational and behavioral factors in isolation, limiting understanding of how sustained engagement in physical activity develops.

Objectives. This study aims to provide a thematically grounded synthesis of how non-cognitive attributes and self-regulatory processes interact to shape physical literacy outcomes in educational contexts.

Materials and Methods. A systematic review was conducted following PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Literature was retrieved from the Scopus and Web of Science databases using predefined search criteria. A total of 36 studies met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed using thematic synthesis.

Results. Four key themes were identified: (1) non-cognitive foundations, (2) self-regulatory mechanisms, (3) pedagogical and social contexts, and (4) digital and hybrid learning pathways. The findings indicate a consistent pattern in which non-cognitive attributes—particularly motivation, confidence, and self-efficacy—function as initiators of engagement, while sustained participation is supported by self-regulatory processes such as goal-setting, self-monitoring, and behavioral adjustment. These processes facilitate the transition from initial intention to more stable participation over time. In addition, pedagogical and digital contexts shape this relationship by structuring and supporting the interaction between motivational and regulatory processes.

Conclusions. The findings support a dual-process perspective in which motivation initiates engagement and self-regulation stabilizes behavior over time. This study contributes by clarifying how engagement in physical activity can be both initiated and sustained, providing a basis for designing physical education programs that integrate motivational and self-regulatory development.

Reconceptualizing Continuing Professional Development in Physical Education: A Systematic Review of Implementation, Mechanisms, and Pedagogical Transformation

2026-05-30T19:32:50+03:00

Background. Continuing professional development (CPD) plays a critical role in improving teaching quality in physical education (PE); however, its effectiveness remains uneven and highly context-dependent.

Objectives. This study aims to systematically examine the forms of implementation, outcomes, and impacts of CPD in PE, while providing a more integrated understanding of how CPD functions as a professional learning process.

Materials and Methods. A systematic literature review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines, identifying 30 empirical studies published between 2015 and 2025 across major academic databases. Data were analyzed using thematic synthesis to identify patterns in implementation, duration, and outcomes.

Results. The findings indicate that CPD in PE is implemented through diverse models, including workshops, professional learning communities, and practice-based collaborative approaches. However, effectiveness is not determined solely by format or duration, but by the extent to which CPD fosters sustained engagement, reflective practice, and contextual relevance. CPD contributes to improvements in teachers’ pedagogical knowledge, instructional practices, self-efficacy, and professional identity. Evidence of impact at the student and institutional levels suggests enhanced engagement, inclusivity, and learning environments, although these effects are indirect and mediated by implementation conditions.

Conclusions. CPD in PE should be understood as a dynamic, multi-level professional learning process shaped by interactions among individual, social, and institutional factors. These findings highlight the need for context-responsive and sustainable CPD designs that support meaningful pedagogical transformation.

The Role of Physical Education in Developing Students’ Motivation and Lifelong Physical Activity: A Pedagogical Perspective

2026-05-30T19:32:39+03:00

Objectives. This conceptual narrative review examines how motivation functions as a structural mechanism linking pedagogical approaches in physical education to lifelong physical activity.

Materials and Methods. Through a selective and interpretive synthesis of theoretical and empirical literature grounded in Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and models-based practice, this review develops an integrative conceptual model.

Results. The synthesis demonstrates that specific features of pedagogical models (e.g., autonomy support in TGfU, affiliation in Sport Education, and peer support in Cooperative Learning) satisfy the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Simultaneous satisfaction of these needs facilitates the internalization of motivational regulation—from controlled to more autonomous forms (identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation)—which, in turn, promotes sustained engagement in physical activity beyond the school context. Hybrid integrative models demonstrate greater potential because they create coherent learning environments that reinforce these processes, whereas traditional and single-model approaches often lead only to short-term compliance and limited behavioral transfer.

Conclusions. Transitioning toward system-oriented hybrid frameworks, with motivation positioned as a central organizing mechanism, is essential for physical education to promote autonomous motivation and lifelong physical activity habits. The review identifies the conditions under which this mechanism operates effectively or fails, thereby providing a conceptual foundation for curriculum reform and future research.

Integrated Versus Cognitively-Enriched Physical Education: Differential Effects On Mathematics Performance In School-Aged Children

2026-05-30T19:32:38+03:00

Background. Physical activity (PA) interventions are increasingly being studied due to their potential to improve academic performance, particularly in mathematics. However, it remains unclear whether specific approaches such as Mathematics Integrated Physical Education (Math-PE) are more effective than general approaches such as Cognitively Enriched PE.

Objectives. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the effects of physical activity interventions on mathematics performance and compare the effectiveness of Mathematics Integrated Physical Education (Math-PE) and Cognitively Enriched PE.

Materials and Methods. This study employed a systematic review and meta-analysis. A literature search was conducted in the Scopus, PubMed, and Taylor & Francis Online databases in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. The studies that met the criteria (N = 11 independent samples) consisted of randomized controlled trials and quasi-experiments. The analysis used a random-effects model to calculate the pooled standardized mean difference (SMD).

Results. The analysis revealed a significant and moderate overall effect of PA interventions on mathematics performance (SMD = 0.425; 95% CI [0.187; 0.663]; p < 0.001). Importantly, moderator analysis revealed no statistically significant difference between Integrated Math-PE (k = 7; SMD = 0.436) and Cognitively Enriched PE (k = 4; SMD = 0.427; Qb = 0.00; p = 0.974).

Conclusions. While both methods produce statistically similar results, their implementation needs to be tailored to specific pedagogical circumstances. Integrated Physical Education and Mathematics is most effective for introducing specific mathematical concepts in early grades, while Cognitively Enriched Physical Education is more appropriate for improving general problem-solving skills and calculation speed in older children. Therefore, educators must carefully select methods that are truly relevant to the developmental stage of the students and the learning objectives they wish to achieve, emphasizing that Physical Education is a crucial factor in mathematics achievement when applied in the right context.

Health Literacy, Physical Activity, and Education: Integrating Healthcare and Pedagogical Perspectives

2026-05-30T19:32:52+03:00

Background. Health literacy (HL) is a multidimensional construct recognized as a key determinant of health outcomes, influencing individuals’ ability to access, understand, and apply health information. However, existing literature predominantly describes associations between HL and health behaviours, while the mechanisms through which HL produces behavioural change, particularly in physical activity, remain insufficiently specified. In addition, the contextual conditions under which these effects operate, weaken, or fail have not been clearly defined.

Objective. This narrative review aims to develop a mechanism-based and condition-sensitive conceptual model integrating healthcare, pedagogical, and physical activity perspectives to explain how, why, and under which conditions HL influences health behaviour, with specific reference to physical activity.

Materials and Methods. A structured narrative review was conducted using the PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. Studies published between 2000 and 2025 were selected based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. The analysis followed a theory-driven synthesis approach aimed at identifying causal pathways, mediating processes, and contextual moderators.

Results. The synthesis identifies a multilevel mechanism through which HL influences physical activity and health behaviours via cognitive, motivational, and behavioural regulation processes. However, this mechanism is conditional rather than universal: its effectiveness depends on contextual factors such as educational level, socio-economic status, healthcare system complexity, and digital access. HL effects are strengthened in supportive environments, attenuated in complex communication contexts, and may fail in the presence of structural constraints.

Conclusions. HL should be conceptualized not only as a determinant but also as a conditional mechanism of behaviour change operating across healthcare, educational, and social systems. The proposed model provides a theoretically grounded framework with defined causal pathways, mediators, and boundary conditions, offering guidance for the design of integrated interventions to improve health outcomes, promote active lifestyles, and reduce health inequalities.

The Role of Sport in Promoting Mental Health Among Adolescents

2026-05-30T19:32:51+03:00

Objective. Adolescence, a critical transitional phase of life, is characterised by biological, psychological, and social changes that may increase vulnerability to mental health problems. This review aims to provide an integrative synthesis of the role of sport and physical activity in promoting mental health among adolescents, with a specific focus on biological, psychological, and social mechanisms.

Materials and Methods. A narrative review was conducted using studies retrieved from major scientific databases, including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Relevant articles were selected based on their focus on adolescents (aged 10–24 years), physical activity or sport participation, and mental health outcomes. The evidence was analysed using a thematic approach to identify patterns, relationships, and inconsistencies across studies.

Results. The review identified four main domains: neurobiological, psychological, social, and contextual. Overall, the evidence indicates that physical activity contributes to adolescent mental health through multiple interconnected pathways, including neurobiological mechanisms (e.g., regulation of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine), psychological mechanisms (e.g., improved self-esteem), and social mechanisms (e.g., peer interaction). However, the magnitude and direction of these effects appear to be strongly moderated by contextual and environmental factors.

Conclusions. Sport represents a multidimensional factor in promoting mental health during adolescence. Its effects should be interpreted within an integrated framework in which biological, psychological, and social mechanisms interact dynamically. Rather than being universally beneficial, sport participation may produce both positive and negative outcomes depending on the quality of the environment and the level of competitiveness. Future research should focus on clarifying causal pathways and contextual moderators, as well as on developing context-sensitive and mechanism-informed interventions.